A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan (1557-2000) Read online

  A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan

  A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan

  1557–2000

  Victoria R. Bricker

  THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS

  Salt Lake City

  Copyright © 2019 by The University of Utah Press. All rights reserved.

  The Defiance House Man colophon is a registered trademark

  of The University of Utah Press. It is based on a four-foot-tall

  Ancient Puebloan pictograph (late PIII) near Glen Canyon, Utah.

  LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

  Names: Bricker, Victoria Reifler, 1940- author.

  Title: A historical grammar of the Maya language of Yucatan : 1557-2000 /

  Victoria R. Bricker.

  Description: Salt Lake City : The University of Utah Press, [2018] | Includes

  bibliographical references. |

  Identifiers: LCCN 2017049903 (print) | LCCN 2017051508 (ebook) | ISBN

  9781607816256 () | ISBN 9781607816249 (cloth)

  Subjects: LCSH: Mayan languages—Yucatan Peninsula. | Mayan

  languages—Grammar. | Mayan languages—Texts.

  Classification: LCC PM3963 (ebook) | LCC PM3963 B71 2018 (print) | DDC

  497/.427—dc23

  LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017049903

  Printed and bound in the United States of America.

  CONTENTS

  PREFACE  xix

  CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION  1

  1. Terminology  1

  2. Sources  1

  3. Methodology  3

  3.1. Palaeography  3

  3.2. Concordances  4

  3.3. Dating Grammatical Changes in the Written Record  4

  4. Scribes  6

  Note  6

  CHAPTER 2: ORTHOGRAPHY  7

  1. Phonetic Segments  7

  2. Orthographic Correspondences  7

  2.1. Consonants  7

  2.1.1. Velar and Laryngeal “h”  8

  2.1.2. Glottal Stop  11

  2.1.3. Other Velar Consonants  13

  2.1.4. Glides  13

  2.1.5. Liquids  14

  2.1.6. Voiceless Bilabial Stop and Labiodental Fricative  15

  2.1.7. Ejectives  15

  2.1.8. Double Consonants  15

  2.2. Vowels  16

  2.3. Abbreviations  16

  Notes  18

  CHAPTER 3: PHONOLOGY  19

  1. Root-Based Phonological Processes  19

  1.1. Canonical Root Shapes  19

  1.2. Co-Occurrence Restrictions  20

  1.3. Vowel Grades  20

  1.4. Affixes  21

  1.4.1. Prefixes  21

  1.4.2. Suffixes  22

  v

  vi Contents

  2. Phonological Processes  23

  2.1. Stems  23

  2.2. Consonantal Processes  23

  2.2.1. Identical-Consonant Clusters  23

  2.2.1.1. Sonorant Clusters  23

  2.2.1.2. Obstruent Clusters  23

  2.2.1.3. Fricative Clusters  24

  2.2.2. Other Consonant Clusters  24

  2.2.2.1. Prefixes  25

  2.2.2.2. Suffixes  28

  2.2.2.2.1. Debuccalization  28

  2.2.2.2.2. Vowel Insertion  30

  2.2.2.2.3. Liquid Deletion  30

  2.2.2.2.4. Interrogatives with -x  31

  2.2.2.2.5. Nasal Assimilation  31

  2.3. Vocalic Processes  32

  2.3.1. The Special Status of Laryngeals  32

  2.3.2. Accent and Pitch  34

  2.3.2.1. Stress  34

  2.3.2.2. Pitch Accent  37

  2.3.2.3. Yucatecan Tonogenesis  40

  2.3.3. Evidence for Schwa in Colonial Yucatec  43

  3. Summary of Phonological Changes Through Time  45

  Notes  46

  CHAPTER 4: PRONOUNS  47

  1. Dependent Pronouns  47

  1.1. Dependent Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec  47

  1.2. Dependent Pronouns in Modern Yucatec  50

  1.3. Historical Change in Clitic Pronouns  53

  2. Independent Pronouns  54

  2.1. Independent Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec  54

  2.2. Independent Pronouns in Modern Yucatec  54

  2.3. Historical Change in Independent Pronouns  54

  3. Indirect Object Pronouns  55

  4. Stative Pronouns  56

  5. Independent Possessive Pronouns  57

  6. Reflexive Pronouns  58

  7. Demonstrative Pronouns  58

  8. Interrogative and Relative Pronouns  59

  9. Indefinite Pronouns  62

  9.1. Indefinite Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec  62

  9.2. Indefinite Pronouns in Modern Yucatec  64

  9.3. The Historical Status of Topicalized Indefinite Pronouns  65

  10. Summary of Pronominal Changes Through Time  66

  Contents vii

  CHAPTER 5: TENSE/ASPECT AND MOOD  67

  1. Aspectual Verb Stems  67

  1.1. Intransitive Verbs  67

  1.1.1. Aspectual Inflection of Intransitive Verbs in Colonial Yucatec  67

  1.1.2. Aspectual Inflection of Intransitive Verbs in Modern Yucatec  70

  1.1.3. The Prophetic Future Marked by -om  73

  1.2. Transitive Verbs  73

  1.2.1. Aspectual Inflection of Transitive Verbs in Colonial Yucatec  73

  1.2.2. Aspectual Inflection of Transitive Verbs in Modern Yucatec  77

  1.2.3. Semantic Implications of Aspectual and Mood Suffixes  81

  2. Aspectual Head Words and Clitic Particles  82

  2.1. Aspectual Clitic Particles Associated with the Perfective Stem  82

  2.1.1. The Functional Difference Between t(i)- and Ø-Perfective Stems  82

  2.1.2. Historical Change in Aspectual Clitic Particles Associated with the Perfective Stem  89

  2.2. Aspectual Head Words and Clitic Particles Associated with the Imperfective Stem  91

  2.2.1. Historical Change in Aspectual Head Words Associated with the Imperfective Stem  94

  2.3. Aspectual Head Words Associated with the Subjunctive Stem  98

  3. Semantic Implications of Aspect in Modern Yucatec  101

  4. The “Present Tense”  104

  4.1. Coronel’s Paradigm of the “Present Tense”  104

  4.2. The Use of the “Present Tense” to Express Intention  106

  5. Aspectual Stem Suffixes in Adverbial Focus Contexts  107

  5.1. Intransitive Stem Suffixes that Co-Occur with Focused Adverbial Particles  108

  5.2. Transitive Stem Suffixes that Co-Occur with Focused Adverbial Particles  116

  6. The Vanishing Historical Past  120

  7. Summary of Changes in Aspectual Head Words and Suffixes Through Time  121

  Notes  121

  CHAPTER 6: INTRANSITIVE VERBS  123

  1. Root Intransitives  123

  1.1. Verbs of Motion  123

  1.2. Other Root Intransitives  125

  2. Derived Intransitives  126

  2.1. Derived Intransitives Based on Root Transitives  126

  2.2. Inchoatives or Versives  126

&nbs
p; 2.2.1. Inchoatives Derived with -h  126

  2.2.2. Inchoatives Derived with -ch-ah  128

  2.2.3. Inchoatives Derived with -tal  129

  2.3. Celeritives  131

  2.4. Agentless Passives  133

  3. Other Intransitives  135

  4. Pluralization  135

  5. Intransitive Compounds  136

  6. Intransitive Phrases  138

  7. Summary of Changes in Intransitive Verbs Through Time  140

  Notes  140

  viii Contents

  CHAPTER 7: TRANSITIVE VERBS  141

  1. Voice  141

  1.1. Voice in Root Transitives  141

  1.1.1. The Active Voice of Root Transitives  141

  1.1.2. The Passive Voice of Root Transitives  142

  1.1.3. The Antipassive Voice of Root Transitives  148

  1.1.4. The Middle Voice of Root Transitives  151

  1.2. Voice in Derived Transitives  152

  1.2.1. Voice in Causative Stems Derived from Root Intransitives  152

  1.2.1.1. The Active Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives  152

  1.2.1.2. The Passive Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives  153

  1.2.1.3. The Antipassive Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives  154

  1.2.1.4. Voice in Other Causative Stems  155

  1.2.1.4.1. Voice in Causatives Derived from Celeritive Stems  155

  1.2.1.4.2. Voice in Causatives Marked by -bes  156

  1.2.2. Voice in Transitives Derived from Nominal Roots and Stems  157

  1.2.2.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns  157

  1.2.2.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns  158

  1.2.2.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns  159

  1.2.3. The Passive Voice in Transitive Roots with a Medial Laryngeal  162

  1.2.4. Voice in Transitive Verbs Derived from Root Transitives  165

  1.2.5. Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans  166

  1.2.5.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans  166

  1.2.5.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans  167

  1.2.5.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans  167

  1.2.6. Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and Affects  168

  1.2.6.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and

  Affects  168

  1.2.6.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and

  Affects  170

  1.2.6.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and

  Affects  171

  2. Usative Verbs  171

  3. Defective Verbs  173

  3.1. Defective and Normal Versions of kat  173

  3.2. Defective and Normal Versions of ohel  175

  3.3. Defective and Normal Versions of kah=ol  176

  4. Pluralization  177

  5. Transitive Compounds  178

  5.1. Noun Incorporation  178

  5.2. Adjective Incorporation  181

  5.3. Transitive Compounds with Two Transitive Roots  183

  5.4. Dialectal Variation in the Formation of Compounds in the Calepino de Motul  184

  6. Transitive Phrases  185

  7. Summary of Changes in Transitive Verbs Through Time  186

  Notes  187

  Contents ix

  CHAPTER 8: NOUNS  188

  1. Nominal Roots  188

  1.1. Inflection for Possession  188

  1.2. Other Considerations  192

  1.2.1. Body-Part Terms  192

  1.2.2. Kinship Terms  194

  1.2.3. Reflexive and Reciprocal Nouns  196

  2. Derived Nouns  197

  2.1. Agentive Nouns  197

  2.1.1. Marking Agentive Nouns for Ownership with -nal  198

  2.1.2. Agentives Marked by -yah  200

  2.2. Instrumental Nouns  200

  2.3. Abstract Nouns  202

  2.3.1. Abstract Nouns Derived from Adjectival Roots and Stems  202

  2.3.2. Abstract Nouns Derived from Nominal Roots and Stems  204

  2.3.3. Abstract Nouns Derived from Particle Roots and Stems  205

  2.3.4. Abstract Nouns Derived from Transitive Roots  206

  2.3.5. Abstract Nouns Derived from Intransitive Stems  206

  2.4. Verbal Nouns  206

  2.5. Relational Nouns  208

  2.6. Noun Classifiers  210

  2.6.1. Noun Classifiers with Faunal Terms  210

  2.6.1.1. Avian Terms  210

  2.6.1.1.1. Avian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah  210

  2.6.1.1.2. An Avian Term that Co-Occurs with Ix  211

  2.6.1.1.3. Avian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers  211

  2.6.1.2. Mammalian Terms  212

  2.6.1.2.1. Mammalian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah  212

  2.6.1.2.2. Mammalian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers  213

  2.6.1.3. Reptilian Terms  214

  2.6.1.3.1. Reptilian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah or Ix  214

  2.6.1.3.2. Reptilian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers  215

  2.6.1.4. Terms for Insects and Worms  215

  2.6.1.4.1. Terms for Insects and Worms that Co-Occur with Ah  215

  2.6.1.4.2. Terms for Insects that Co-Occur with Ix  216

  2.6.1.4.3. Terms for Insects and Worms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers  216

  2.6.1.5. Terms for Fish  218

  2.6.1.5.1. Terms for Fish that Co-Occur with Ah or Ix  218

  2.6.1.5.2. Terms for Fish that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers  218

  2.6.2. Noun Classifiers with Botanical Terms  218

  2.6.2.1. Botanical Terms that Co-Occur with Ah  218

  2.6.2.2. Botanical Terms that Co-Occur with Ix  219

  2.6.2.3. Botanical Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers  219

  2.6.3. The Function of Ah and Ix in Faunal and Botanical Terms  220

  2.6.4. Toponyms  222

  2.6.4.1. Toponyms that Co-Occur with Ix  222

  x Contents

  2.6.4.2. Toponyms that Do Not Co-Occur with Ix  223

  2.6.5. Noun Classifiers with Disease Terms  226

  3. Nominal Compounds  226

  3.1. Double Noun Compounds  227

  3.2. Adjective-Plus-Noun Compounds  228

  4. Nominal Phrases  230

  5. Summary of Changes in Nouns Through Time  232

  Notes  232

  CHAPTER 9: NUMBERS AND NUMERAL CLASSIFIERS  233

  1. Number Words  233

  2. Numeral Classifiers  237

  2.1. The Structure of Numeral Classifier Phrases  237

  2.2. Numeral Classifiers as Surrogate Adverbs in Colonial Yucatec  241

  2.3. Historical Change in Numeral Classifiers  244

  Notes  245

  CHAPTER 10: ADJECTIVES  247

  1. Adjectival Roots  247

  2. Derived Adjectives  250

  2.1. Adjectives Marked by -il  250

  2.1.1. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -il  250

  2.1.2. Adjectives Derived from Adjectival Roots with -il  251

  2.2. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -tzil  252

  2.3. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -liz  253

  2.4. Adjectives Marked by -ach or -Vch  254

  2.4.1. Adjectives Derived from Adjectival Roots with -ach or -Vch  254r />
  2.4.2. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -ach  255

  2.5. Adjectives Marked by -ben  256

  2.5.1. Potential Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots  256